Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon I, also called Napoléon Bonaparte, was a French military general and statesman. Napoleon played a key role in the French Revolution (1789–99), served as the First Consul of France (1799–1804), and was the first emperor of France (1804–14/15). Today Napoleon is widely considered one of the greatest military generals in history.[6]

Early Life and Education

Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769 in Ajaccio, the capital of Corsica, into an aristocratic family.[5][1] Napoleon was born on Corsica shortly after the island's cession to France by the Genoese. He was the fourth, and second surviving, child of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer, and his wife, Letizia Ramolino.[6] His father's family, of ancient Tuscan nobility, had emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century. Carlo Buonaparte had married the beautiful and strong-willed Letizia when she was only 14 years old; they eventually had eight children to bring up in very difficult times.[6]

Of the Bonapartes' twelve children, only eight would survive, namely, Joseph (1768), Napoleon (1769), Lucien (1775), Marie-Anne known as Elisa (1777), Louis (1778), Marie-Paulette known as Pauline (1780), Marie-Annonciade known as Caroline (1782) and Jerome (1784).[1][5] Napoleon was mischievous and disruptive and was often told-off, but even from an early age, he enjoyed learning.[5]

In 1774, aged five years old, Napoleon entered the primary boarding school run by Beguine lay sisters in Ajaccio, as a day-boy.[1] Two years later he studied French under Abbé Recco (who received 20,000 Francs in Napoleon's will).[1] On 16 December 1778, Charles Bonaparte and his two elder sons set out for mainland France. Joseph and Napoleon went to the school in Autun on 1 January 1779, the aim being to perfect their French.[1]

Napoleon left Autun on 21 April, stayed for three weeks with M. de Champeaux before leaving for the Royal military Secondary school at Brienne. In April 1779 Napoleon entered the military school at Brienne.[4][1] When he was ten years-old, Napoleon left Corsica to go to military school in Brienne (near Auxerre).[5] This was a school reserved for boys from aristocratic families. Napoleon read a lot, especially history books, and he was good at mathematics as well. He did not have many friends though, and his classmates made fun of his Corsican accent.[5]

In October 1784 he began attending the Ecole Militaire in Paris.[4] When he was fifteen, he moved to the military school in Paris. He was to become an officer and command soldiers. At school he wore a uniform and learnt to use weapons and ride a horse.[5] When Napoleon graduated from the military academy in Paris, he ranked 42nd out of his class of 58 students.[20]

Key Influences and Mentors

The French occupation of their native country was resisted by a number of Corsicans led by Pasquale Paoli. Carlo Buonaparte joined Paoli's party, but when Paoli had to flee, Buonaparte came to terms with the French. Winning the protection of the governor of Corsica, he was appointed assessor for the judicial district of Ajaccio in 1771.[6] Imperatively, Napoleon's father was a staunch supporter of the Corsican resistance leader, Pasquale Paoli. However, when Paoli fled Corsica for his life, Carlo Buonaparte shifted his allegiance to France and effectively established connections with the French.[3]

Back home, Napoleon got behind the Corsican resistance to the French occupation, siding with his father's former ally, Pasquale Paoli.[10] However, the two soon had a falling out, and when a civil war in Corsica began in April 1793, Napoleon—now an enemy of Paoli—and his family relocated to France, where they assumed the French version of their name: Bonaparte.[10]

Professional Development

Once he had completed his education, he was sent to join his new regiment in the south of France.[5] Graduating early from the military academy, Napoleon, now second lieutenant of artillery, returned to Corsica in 1786.[10] In June 1788, Lieutenant Bonaparte rejoined his regiment, stationed at Auxonne, a small town in Burgundy. In 1789, troubled year, he was responsible for suppressing riots in the region, and then returned to Corsica, where he participated in the political turmoil that was stiring the island.[8]

Napoleon embraced Jacobinism, standing for popular government and centralization.[4] By returning to France Napoleon prompted a re-commissioning of the French military and he joined his military unit in Nice in June 1793 throwing his political support behind the Jacobins. The Jacobins were considered progressive and were a popular party after the French Revolution.[3]

During the rule of Robespierre Napoleon was stationed in Toulon, the biggest French naval base in the Mediterranean, where he drove out the British fleet supported by counter-revolutionary federalists. He received a position as the artillery commander at the Siege of Toulon in 1793.[9][4] Napoleon came up with a strategy that helped to defeat the British and force them out of the port. His military leadership in the battle was recognized by the leaders of France and, at the young age of 24, he was promoted to the position of brigadier general.[9]

Military Career and Major Campaigns

From relatively humble beginnings, he rose to prominence during the tumultuous wars of the French Revolution, ultimately fighting in over 60 battles, of which he lost only seven.[11] Napoleon Bonaparte fought in or commanded approximately 60 battles over the course of his career, and only lost seven.[11]

Italian Campaigns

In 1796, Napoleon was given command of the French army in Italy.[9] The young general Bonaparte was sent to Italy. The army that he commanded was exhausted and lacked uniforms, ammunition and food. Napoleon knew how to motivate his troops, though, and he won many victories, including at Arcola, Rivoli.[5]

Battle of Austerlitz

Battle of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805), the first engagement of the War of the Third Coalition and one of Napoleon's greatest victories.[13] His 68,000 troops defeated almost 90,000 Russians and Austrians, forcing Austria to make peace with France. His 68,000 troops defeated 90,000 Russians and Austrians under General M.I. Kutuzov, forcing Austria to make peace with France and keeping Prussia temporarily out of the anti-French alliance.[13]

The French victory at Austerlitz was Napoleon's masterpiece. It dramatically reversed his militarily and politically dangerous situation and secured his imperial regime (Austerlitz took place on the one-year anniversary of his coronation as emperor). It effectively spelled the end of the Third Coalition and gave Napoleon the initiative in Europe with which he was soon to obtain his greatest triumphs.[13]

The Russian Campaign

In order to force the Russians to comply with the embargo against Britain, Napoleon decided to invade Russian territory. During the Russian Campaign of 1812 Napoleon assembled the largest army ever seen on the continent, with around 450,000 troops.[20] The invasion of Russia is regarded as one of the most disastrous military endeavors ever attempted. Napoleon pushed his troops rapidly into Russian territory, and they soon began to suffer from disease, extreme weather, and a lack of resources. While winning victories in minor battles, Napoleon failed to force the Russians to surrender, and his army further deteriorated.[20]

The invasion of Russia marked one of the most catastrophic failures of Napoleon's military career. It is estimated that Napoleon lost approximately 500,000 men during the campaign.[20]

Waterloo and Final Defeat

He returned to France in March 1815 and rebuilt his army, but he was defeated by Allied forces under the duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815.[12] Together they defeated Napoleon's army of nearly 73,000 troops on June 18, 1815, with heavy casualties on both sides. Waterloo was Napoleon's final military engagement, and the defeat forced his second and final abdication as Emperor of the French.[20]

Personal Life and Relationships

Marriage to Josephine

Josephine married Napoleon on March 9, 1796, when she was 32 and he was 26.[23] Josephine (her real name is Marie-Joseph-Rose) was born in Martinique, an island in the French Caribbean, and arrived in Paris at the age of 16. Her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais, was an aristocrat and political figure, who was guillotined during the French Revolution. Mother of two children, Eugene and Hortense, Josephine married Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young general with a promising career ahead of him.[21]

It was her husband who renamed her Josephine.[21] Although he had to leave his new bride two days after the wedding to lead a French army into Italy, he wrote to her continuously, with gushing declarations of love: "Every moment separates me further from you, my beloved, and every moment I have less energy to exist so far from you. You are the constant object of my thoughts."[28]

Still, despite their trysts and disagreements, it's clear Napoleon cared for Josephine very much. He lamented their lack of correspondence in his letters from the battlefield. "I cannot even drink a cup of tea without cursing the glory and the ambition which keep me apart from the soul of my existence," he once wrote.[27]

Divorce and Marriage to Marie-Louise

Though Josephine already had two children (Eugène and Hortense) from her first marriage, she was unable to produce an heir for Napoleon.[23] This troubled him once he became Emperor of the French. When after a few years of marriage it became clear that Josephine could not have a child, Napoleon began to think seriously about the possibility of divorce even though he still loved his wife. The final die was cast when Josephine's grandson Napoleon Charles Bonaparte, declared Napoleon's heir, died of croup in 1807. He let Josephine know that in the interest of France, he must find a wife who could produce an heir. Despite her anger, Josephine agreed to the divorce so the Emperor could remarry in the hope of having an heir.[25]

On December 16, 1809, Napoleon had the marriage dissolved, much to Josephine's regret. The divorce ceremony took place in 1810 and was a grand but solemn social occasion.[25][23] In addition to the desire for an heir, Napoleon sought the validation and legitimization of his Empire by marrying a member of one of the leading royal families of Europe. In 1810, he married 19-year-old Marie-Louise, Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie Antoinette by proxy.[25]

Marie-Louise gave birth to a son in 1811. The boy, Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte, was given the title King of Rome in accordance with the practice where the heir apparent to the Holy Roman Empire was[25] designated.

Political Reforms and Legacy

He was elected consul for life in 1802, then proclaimed the French emperor two years later. As a political leader, Bonaparte broadly transformed French society, most notably ushering in the Napoleonic Code that still serves as the basis of civil codes around the world today.[10]

Ruling France As the dictator of France, Napoleon was able to institute a number of government reforms. One of these reforms was the famous Napoleonic Code. This code said that government positions would not be appointed based on a person's birth or religion, but on their qualifications and ability.[9] Napoleon also helped to improve the French economy by building new roads and encouraging business. He reestablished the Catholic Church as the official state religion, but at the same time allowed for freedom of religion to those who weren't Catholic. Napoleon also set up non-religious schools, so anyone could get an education.[9]

Exile and Death

The coalition captured Paris and forced Napoleon to abdicate his throne in April 6, 1814. After abdicating, Napoleon was sent to exile on the island of Elba off the coast of Italy.[20] The Bourbon monarchy was restored for a brief period before Napoleon escaped exile in March 1815 and returned to resume power in France. This period between Napoleon's return from exile and his second exile is referred to as the Hundred Days.[20]

After Napoleon's abdication from power in 1815, fearing a repeat of his earlier return from exile on Elba, the British government sent Napoleon to the remote island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean. He lived there for the rest of his life.[10] The once proud emperor died on the 5th of May 1821.[3]